Training Principles

Foundation of all training: the General Adaptation Syndrome

For the principles of training to make sense, the biological laws of adaptation to it must be known beforehand. That is why we talk about the General Adaptation Syndrome or Selye’s Law.

The author who gives this concept its name (Selye, H., 1963), states that the organism suffers an imbalance in response to the action of a stressor (causing the disruption of homeostasis), and if this agent persists continuously over time, it gives rise to different reactions depending on its persistence.

The training acts as a momentary physical and hormonal stress or shock, creating a kind of protection against stress, which could well be the development of a state of resistance to subsequently provoke an adaptation.

The level of alteration of homeostasis through a given stimulus (exercise) is responsible for the behavior of the training state curve.

Modifications in the structure of training allow for new adaptation processes. 1) Stimulus, Shock or training session 2) disruption of homeostasis 3) wear or catabolism 4) counter shock, time or recovery process 5) gain and development surpassing the previous state.

Starting from this concept of Training Adaptation, applying a series of basic principles (Principles of Training that configure what would be the ideal training) and an adequate genetic base guarantee a good sports performance.

Classification of the principles of training

To better understand the principles of training, they are grouped into three major blocks:

Principles of training related to the organism’s response to effort:

• Principle of totality.
• Principle of individualization.

Principles of training related to the training stimulus:

• Intensity.
• Progression.
• Continuity.
• Reversibility.
• Alternation.

Principles of training related to the systems targeted by the stimulus:

• Principle of multilateralism.
• Principle of transfer.
• Principle of specificity.
• Principle of specialization.

Principles related to the organism’s response to effort

Below we will discuss the principles of training related to the organism’s response to effort.

Principle of totality

Training must be a multifactorial process, which must have a comprehensive view of all tasks.

That is, training becomes a stimulus capable of unbalancing the organism and provoking a response in the form of performance if the sum of all elements is taken into account.

To provoke the desired response, the different stimuli must be coordinated. An example of this would be: joint training of technique, tactics, and physical condition.

In all cycles, periods, and training sessions, the principle of totality must be covered.

Principle of individualization

Another of the principles of training is individualization.

The morphological and functional characteristics of each subject determine this principle of training. Each person is a whole with their own specific characteristics, different from others in all aspects (anthropometric, functional, motor, psychological, etc.).

This explains the different reactions each subject has to the same training loads, regardless of their fitness level.

The benefits of training will be optimal when work programs are applied according to the capacities and needs of each subject, so individualization is one of the main requirements of modern training. For example: the training routine performed by a family member or friend does not have to be beneficial for another person.

Each athlete must be treated individually, according to a series of needs, such as: level of physical condition, technical skills, characteristics of the sport they practice, psychological characteristics, etc.

Principles of training related to the training stimulus

Next, we analyze the principles of training related to the stimulus of your training:

Principle of intensity

Another of the principles of training is intensity.

The training state of a subject improves when its intensity is sufficient to provoke an activation of the energy metabolism and the different systems of the human body.

That is, the organism subjected to physical effort adapts, progressively, to withstand increasingly greater loads. That is why different situations can occur when we subject the organism to different stimuli:

• Stimuli of low intensity: do not provoke any response.
• Stimuli of medium intensity: do not provoke adaptation, but they do cause excitement.
• Stimuli of strong intensity: not only provoke excitement, but also add subsequent adaptation or supercompensation for the improvement of the organism’s capacities.
• Stimuli of too strong intensity: cause wear, without the possibility of recovery, due to an excessive stimulus or series of stimuli (it could be called “Training Shock”).

Principle of progression

To understand the principles of training, specifically progression, it is important to know that the application of a constant stimulus initially implies a positive evolution of performance, followed by a stagnation and finally an involution or decrease of that capacity.

This progression in training can be approached from two different perspectives. From the technical point of view, sports training should start with the simple, easy, and known, to end with the difficult, complex, and unknown.

From the point of view of physical condition, where only the gradual and progressive increase of loads manages to improve training capacity, and therefore raises the performance level of athletes.

This continuous and gradual increase of the load should be done in a staggered manner, where sessions of different load levels are combined, followed by sessions of active or total rest, during which the organism regenerates and adapts, preparing for new increments.

The progression of loads occurs by increasing any of the parameters, but following this order:

1. Volume (total work time, number of meters covered, amount of weight lifted, number of repetitions, etc.
2. Intensity (qualitative aspect of the exercise, i.e., increase in speed, increase in kg in strength work, heart rate, % of V02 max, Km/h, etc.)
3. Complexity of the activity.

Principle of continuity

Another of the principles of training is continuity.

Training stimuli must be repeated continuously to achieve performance improvements, as the absence of stimulation causes reversible effects in adaptation processes.

If the stimuli applied do not appear repeatedly, within the supercompensation phase, it is lost, decreasing the subject’s performance capacity.

Training, therefore, should be understood as a process that extends over several years, in which each activity is based on the results of the preceding activity, to reinforce and develop them (habit of physical activity).

Authors like Cherebetiau or Paulov, among others, affirm about the concept of continuity aspects to consider related to the types of supercompensation:

• If an effort is repeated when the effects of the previous work have disappeared, there is no functional development; therefore, long rests do not train. It is also called Null Supercompensation.

• If the effort is repeated without fully completing the supercompensation phase, the functional level decreases and fatigue and muscle tiredness appear; therefore, short rests overtrain. It is also called Negative Supercompensation.

• When the rests are adequate, the organism assimilates the activity performed, allowing the supercompensation phase to be completed and the functional capacity to increase. It is called Positive Supercompensation.

Principle of reversibility

It comes to complete one of the principles of training, specifically continuity.

It indicates that the absence of stimulation causes the loss of the adaptations achieved; the effects of training are reversible and the adaptations achieved after work are lost if not maintained by continued activity.

The improvements achieved quickly in adaptation processes imply rapid losses when the stimulating activity ceases; the gains achieved more slowly imply a longer maintenance period.

For example, after 2 months of intensive strength work, the total cessation of activity results in a significant decrease in strength qualities in 2 weeks and a return to the initial level in 2-3 months.

The endurance qualities obtained by specific training of 2 months can completely disappear in 1.5 months (Platonov, 1988).

Principle of alternation

The stimuli applied in training programs must be varied to avoid monotony and stagnation.

The work plan must be organized so that different tasks and their intensity alternate.

Alternation can be addressed according to the intensity of the load, according to the recovery related to work time, and according to the different muscle groups worked.

Principles of training related to the systems targeted by the stimulus

Next, we analyze the principles of training related to the systems targeted by the stimulus:

Principle of multilateralism

Another of the principles of training is multilateralism. Multilateral training is one of the basic conditions for the formation of a greater number of motor behaviors.

Therefore, in the early years of training as an athlete, general and multifaceted work should predominate, later giving way to specialized training in a discipline.

The multilateral development of the athlete refers to the improvement of volitional qualities, conditional motor capacities (physical development) and coordinative (technical work), overall physical condition, and the harmonious development of the musculature and all body systems; using many and varied methods and exercises.

Principle of transfer

The influence that certain exercises or techniques of a specific specialty can have, as well as their possible functional adaptations, on others, is called transfer. This can be positive, negative, or neutral.

• Positive: When performing a certain activity unrelated to the specialty improves or positively influences the specific specialty (multijump work improves displacement speed, by improving propulsion).
• Negative: when exercises cause modifications that hinder the execution of the exercises specific to the activity (performing only endurance exercises to improve speed).
• Neutral: When the exercises performed neither improve nor worsen the exercises specific to the activity (balance exercise does not contribute to increased strength).

Principle of specificity

The improvement of sports performance is higher when specific work of the chosen activity is used.

For Fauconier, sports performance depends on two fundamental conditions; first, the foundations of training must be laid through the development of physical qualities, and also, specific conditions must be developed according to the particular characteristics of each sport.

Brouha (cited by Álvarez del Villar, 1985, 596) conducted an experiment with runners and rowers, applying the same types of effort (running and rowing) to both groups, controlling heart rate and blood lactate accumulation.

The cardiac reactions were similar in both groups, but lactate accumulation varied depending on the type of work performed. Rowers accumulated more lactate when running and runners when rowing.

The onset of fatigue is earlier when performing non-specific work. Therefore, it is not enough for both sports to be endurance-based; it must be specific to the muscle groups involved in the sports activity.

Principle of specialization

Another of the principles of training is specialization.

To achieve high sports results, one must start with general and multilateral training, which will later give way to specific training in the specific discipline.

The moment when specialization can begin will depend on:

• Age of the subject and maturation.
• Degree of physical development.
• Years of general training.
• Characteristics of the sport itself, effort demands.
• Age of peak sports performance.

In sports of coordination and speed, high results can be achieved at earlier ages; while in sports where the muscular or cardiorespiratory system are dominant, the age of sports maturation is reached later.

For example, in sports activities characterized by the use of speed and quick strength, the best results are achieved between 21 – 23 years, and in events requiring more endurance or maximum strength, the best results are obtained between 24 – 26 years.

Bibliography

1. Álvarez del Villar, C. (1983). Physical preparation for football based on athletics. Gymnos, Madrid (Spain).
2. Dick, F.W. (1993). Principles of sports training. Paidotribo. Barcelona (Spain).
3. Gónzalez Montesinos, J. (2012). Training and biological adaptation laws. Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, University of Cádiz, Cádiz (Spain).
4. Grosser, M.; Starischka, S.; Zimmermann, E. (1988). Principles of sports training. Martínez-Roca S.A., Barcelona (Spain).
5. Harre, D. (1987). Theory of sports training. Stadium, Buenos Aires (Argentina).
6. Hegedüs, J. (1988). The science of sports training. Stadium, Buenos Aires (Argentina).
7. Manno, R. (1988). Fundamentals of sports training. Paidotribo, Barcelona (Spain).
8. Matveev, L.P. (1982). The process of sports training. I.N.E.F., Madrid (Spain).
9. Matveev, L.P (1983). Fundamentals of sports training. Raduga, Moscow (Russia).
10. Platonov, V.N. (1991). Adaptation in sports. Ed. Paidotribo, Barcelona (Spain).
11. Platonov, V.N. (1988). Sports training. Theory and methodology. Ed. Paidotribo, Barcelona (Spain).
12. Platonov, V. N., Bulatowa, M. M. (1993). Physical preparation. Paidotribo. Barcelona (Spain).
13. Verjoshanski, I. (1990). Sports training. Martínez-Roca, S.A., Barcelona (Spain).