We will start by showing some of the most outstanding definitions of motor learning.
Lawther (3) defines it as a relatively permanent change in the motor behavior of individuals as a result of practice or experience.
Schmidt (6) analyzes the concept of motor learning and its implications. He refers to motor learning as a set of processes associated with practice or experience, tending to cause relatively permanent changes in behavior.
On the other hand, Riera (4) does not understand the result of motor learning as the acquisition of new movements, but as the establishment of new and stable relationships of the individual with the environment. Regarding the changes produced by learning, this author differentiates:
- Neural: in synaptic connections and nerve circuits. Although it is a field that is certainly unknown at present.
- Perceptual and motor: learning involves changes in perception and execution mechanisms.
- Personal: they are specified in aspects such as mood or the ability to face new situations.
- Changes in relationships with the environment: learning involves establishing new forms of relationship of the individual with the environment. These evolve from general, unstable relationships with high demand for attention to specific, effective, and automated relationships.
Properties of motor learning
Riera (4) also highlights some properties of motor learning:
- Learning should be considered as an endless process.
- It is always positive in nature, and one can speak of a decrease in effectiveness but not of negative learning.
- Learning is an observable process, overlooking structural and nervous system changes.
- Learning is a personal process in which other subjects, teachers, peers, etc., can influence, but it is always the learner who learns. This entails the need to consider personal characteristics when planning educational situations and to consider that the learning process is particular to each learner.
- Learning is a global relationship process in which the individual interacts with their environment, so we must consider the different aspects of the learner, not just those related to motor execution.
- One learns to learn, as learning situations help to learn how to face new situations.
Phases of motor learning
We will mainly follow Schnabel (5) to establish the information about the 3 phases of motor learning:
Cognitive phase
It consists of acquiring a clear idea of the goal to be achieved. The subject tries to identify the information related to the demands of the situation to develop a first plan that considers the staging of the involved motor operations.
The duration of this stage is usually short, but it depends on the complexity of the task to be learned and previous experiences. Adams (1) points out the importance of verbal factors as an aid in organizing the action plan and for memorizing data related to the environment.
The subject must understand what they need to learn and build an image of the movement to be performed, even if their movements show some incompetence.
This stage allows the selection of an initial repertoire of subroutines from those developed in previous experiences.
Attention will be paid to aspects that will later go unnoticed, focusing on the important aspects of the skill. It has been found that in the early stages of learning, the use of visual information prevails over kinesthetic, which is more appropriate for proper motor control.
One of the characteristics of motor execution in this phase is the existence of a high muscle tone.
Associative phase
It spans from the end of the previous phase until it is executed almost without errors in stable circumstances. The result of this phase is a coordinated and consistent execution, but difficulties arise when applying it in environments different from the usual ones.
And harmful habits, which may originate from previous experiences, must be eliminated.
Fine coordination is appreciated as the disproportionate use of force and muscle tension decreases. Additionally, the fluidity of execution increases by synchronizing the different elements of the skill. The amplitude and speed of execution approach the desired ones.
The improvement in motor execution occurs because the capacity for perception and information processing increases, as the execution absorbs a lower degree of attention that can be allocated to other purposes. Kinesthetic information predominates instead of visual.
Autonomous phase
It runs from the appearance of fine coordination to the application of the skill in differentiated, difficult, and unusual situations. The result of this phase is the availability of the movement, which can be adapted to multiple situations.
Logically, this phase never concludes, as it can never be stated that a subject has reached perfection in their motor execution, as there will always be room for improvement in one or more aspects.
Stabilization in execution favors the adaptation of the skill to different situations and environments. Perception and information processing mechanisms also improve, facilitating the execution of the skill in changing environments.
Additionally, there is a great predominance of the kinesthetic analyzer, combined with other sources of sensory information. All mechanisms involved in motor execution improve.
Factors influencing motor learning
Next, we analyze different factors that influence motor learning:
Factors related to the person
Level of activation
Lawther (3) states that to learn, the individual must face a situation that stimulates them. In this sense, we learn to balance ourselves, improve our well-being, so there is no learning without restlessness.
Currently, there is talk of an optimal level of activation for each subject to face a specific learning situation.
This optimal level of activation depends on the subject and the difficulty of the task, so the lower the difficulty of the task, the higher the level of activation allowed, while as the difficulty increases, the level of activation must decrease.
Several authors, such as Schmidt (6), have related the optimal level of activation to the specific requirements of each task, stating that if the task requires the contribution of physical qualities, it allows high levels of activation, while if it is a precision task, the level of activation allowed will be considerably lower.
Arnold (2) also differentiates the optimal level of activation according to the stage of learning. In the initial levels, the student is usually sufficiently motivated towards learning, so further motivation should be avoided. But in later stages, the interest and motivation of the learner may decrease, so extrinsic motivation elements are recommended.
Previous knowledge and transfer
Previous learning has a great influence on new learning. Therefore, it is necessary to consider what the learner knows how to do in relation to what they need to learn.
This relationship between learning is known as transfer, which is one of the key concepts of motor learning. Transfer is the results of a learning process or exercise that influence another learning or exercise. There are different types of transfer:
- Positive, when it facilitates an improvement in execution.
- Negative, when it causes a decrease in performance.
- Proactive, when an already consolidated learning affects a new learning.
- Retroactive, when a new learning affects others already learned.
- Vertical, when something known facilitates the learning of something more complex.
- Lateral, when something known facilitates the learning of something of similar difficulty.
On the other hand, 3 theories have been formulated to explain the fact of transfer.
- The theory of identical elements by Thordike, which states that for transfer to occur, there must be identical elements between the originally learned task and the new task to be learned.
- The theory of generalization by Judd, according to which for transfer to occur, the individual must know the basic principles governing the execution of a task, facilitating the learning of tasks governed by the same principles.
- And the theory of transposition by the Gestalt school, which proposes that the overall set of cause-effect relationships applied in one situation is the basis from which a transfer occurs to another situation where the same type of cause-effect relationships intervene.
Factors related to the task
The importance of these factors depends on the person, so their relevance is subjective and variable. Within them, we will differentiate factors related to the perceptual aspect, decision-making, and skill execution.
Factors related to the perceptual aspect
These are the ones that try to answer the question “what is happening?”, analyzing the received stimuli, evaluating the situation, and describing the environment.
The elements to analyze are the environmental conditions, the type of control, the initial state of the individual and object, the type and level of perceptual stimulation (number of present and significant stimuli, speed and duration of the stimulus…), and the purpose of the task in relation to the mobilization of objects.
Factors related to decision-making
They try to answer the question “what to do?”, selecting responses and making decisions.
The elements to analyze in this mechanism are: the number of decisions and purposes, the number of alternatives, the time needed to decide, the available time, the levels of uncertainty and risk, the number of elements to remember, and the sequential order of decisions, which can be fixed (high task organization and lower complexity) or not fixed (low task organization and higher complexity).
Factors related to skill execution
Their goal is to ensure that the result of the action matches its organization and realization.
The qualitative aspects to analyze are: the number of muscle groups, the structure of the movement, the required speed, and the required precision. The quantitative aspects to analyze are: congenital characteristics, such as biotype, reaction time, or type and number of fibers, and improvable characteristics, on which we can increase motor richness.
Factors related to the teaching-learning process
Information transmission
The information must be clear and easy to understand. The student should not be overloaded with too much information, as they will be unable to process it in its entirety. Therefore, it is essential to know the skills to be worked on and to differentiate the essential aspects for their learning. It is also advised to leave little time between information and execution.
Amount of practice
Research on the influence of practice time on the result is diverse and even contradictory. Therefore, we must seek successful practice levels, which reinforce the process and consolidate the achievements made.
Duration and distribution of practice
Duration refers to the time of the sessions. Distribution refers to the interval of time between sessions. According to Lawther (3), both factors are conditioned by different factors such as age (the younger the age, the less time to maintain attention and effort) or task complexity (the greater the complexity, the shorter the session duration). In general, short and close sessions in time are more profitable.
Specificity of the T-L situation
The learning of a skill should be carried out in a situation close to reality. Practicing a movement out of context only affects some aspects of the skill. Thus, other mechanisms such as perceptual and decisional are not improved.
Bibliography
- Adams, J. A. (1971). Motor behavior in learning processes. Editorial Trillas.
- Arnold, R. (1982). Motor learning and task difficulty. Editorial Padiotribo.
- Lawther, J. A. (1978). Learning motor skills. Editorial Paidos.
- Riera, J. (1989). Learning sports technique and tactics. Editorial Inde.
- Scnabel, G. (1988). Motor learning in sports. Editorial Stadium.
- Schmidt, R. A. (1982). Motor control and learning. Editorial Human Kineticks.
